26 June 2024
In 53 days China’s Chang’e 6 lunar probe, named after the Chinese moon goddess, successfully attempted a breakthrough expedition of retrieving samples from the far side of the moon back to Earth. A year before, India’s Chandrayaan 3, clinched the title of becoming the first lunar probe to successfully undertake a soft landing on the moon’s South Pole. All the while, Elon Musk’s Space X made its 350th launch of the Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral in Florida, USA. As nations and companies rush to jack up their flags at earth’s immediate celestial neighbours through myriad of space missions that constitute the second or the 21st century space race. How is it different from the Cold War space vying between the US and USSR, and what are the undercurrents that might
give us a foresight towards its prospects?
The successful return of China’s Chang’e 6 mission, marking the first retrieval of lunar samples from the Moon’s far side, heralds a new chapter in humanity’s exploration of our closest celestial neighbor. The reentry module “successfully landed” in a designated zone in China’s northern Inner Mongolia region just after 2 p.m. local time, according to state broadcaster CCTV. A livestream carried by CCTV showed the module touching down via parachute to a round of applause in the mission control room. The Chang’e-6 probe is expected to have returned to Earth with up to 2 kilograms of moon dust and rocks from the lunar far side, which will be analyzed by researchers in China before being opened for access by international scientists, according to the CNSA. The samples were collected using a drill and robotic arm from a location within the sprawling South Pole-Aitken basin, an impact crater formed some 4 billion years ago on the moon’s far side, which is never visible to Earth. The successful mission is a key milestone in China’s “eternal dream” – as articulated by Chinese leader Xi Jinping – to establish the country as a dominant space power and comes as a number of countries, including the United States, also ramp up their own lunar exploration programs. This feat, achieved on 25 June 2024, serves as a potent symbol of the 21st century space race – a global endeavor marked by a broader range of players, diverse motivations, and a more collaborative, competitive, and confrontational spirit compared to the Cold War space race dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union.
The far side of the moon has been a point of fascination for scientists since they first peered at it in grainy, black and white images captured by the Soviet Union’s Luna 3 spacecraft in 1959 – and realized how different it was from the side facing Earth. Lunar soil could be used for 3-D printing to produce bricks for construction of research bases on the moon, while some scientists were already working on finding more economical and practical technologies to extract gases like Helium-3, oxygen and hydrogen from the soil, which could support further lunar exploration – Yuqi Qian, a planetary geologist at the University of Hong Kong. commented.
China’s ambitions to send astronauts to the moon come as the US targets launching a crewed “Artemis” mission as early as 2026 – in what would be America’s first such attempt in more than 50 years. NASA chief Bill Nelson has appeared to point to China’s pace as a driver in US progress, telling lawmakers in April that the two countries were “in effect … in a race.”
The Cold War Space Race
The Cold War space race, spanning roughly from the late 1950s to the early 1970s, was a fierce competition between
the US and the USSR embedded in the larger ideological rivalry amongst the two superpowers. The launch of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite, by the Soviet Union in 1957, ignited a race for technological supremacy. This competition manifested in a series of firsts – the first living creature (a dog named Laika) in space, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin), the first woman in space (Valentina Tereshkova), and ultimately, the first crewed lunar landing by the US Apollo 11 mission in 1969.
However, the race was driven by more than just scientific curiosity and motivations. It was a powerful propaganda tool, showcasing national technological prowess and ideological superiority. The space race mirrored the broader geopolitical tensions of the Cold War, with each achievement viewed as a symbolic victory in the global struggle between communism and capitalism.
Nevertheless, the Cold War space race didn’t end with a bang, but with a whimper. Primarily, the pivotal turning point for the space race came with the easing of Cold War tensions in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The ideological rivalry that fueled the race began to soften, leading to a more cooperative environment between the US and the USSR. The signing of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) agreement in 1972 showcased the changing landscape. This historic mission, launched in 1975, saw an American Apollo spacecraft dock with a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in orbit, marking a symbolic handshake in space. Later, as the Cold War tensions waned, both the US and the USSR started to re-evaluate their space programs. Domestic priorities like social welfare and economic development began to take precedence over expensive space exploration endeavors.
It’s imperative to note that the decline of the Cold War space race was not a complete halt in space exploration. While crewed spaceflight missions diminished, robotic exploration missions continued. Probes like Voyager 1 and 2 ventured beyond the solar system, while others explored planets and moons within our solar system, providing invaluable scientific data. The end of the Cold War space race marked a period of transition, not stagnation, in space exploration. While the intense bi-polar competition subsided, exploration continued, albeit at a slower pace and with a different focus.
Beyond the Bi-polar World: A Multi-faceted 21st Century Space Race
It was in 1903, when the Wright brothers undertook the first flight at Kitty Hawk in North Carolina, USA. Sixty six
years later, flabbergastingly, in 1969, Neil Arm Strong of the US became the first man to step on moon. In a mere 66 years, humans took their first flight in the sky to the moon. In the following three years, six space missions would succeed in landing humans on the moon. The final one being on 19 December 1972 with the Apollo 17 astronauts
attempting successfully the longest space walk, longest lunar landing and retrieving the largest lunar samples. In what was an era of back to back breakthroughs and startling accomplishments in space and lunar exploration, little would have contemporary observers thought that subsequent to the Apollo 17 mission, we would not return to the moon in 54 years. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration better known as NASA, the US’s national space agency, now intends to undertake the first crewed mission to the moon since Apollo 17. The Artemis 3 mission of the Artemis program is scheduled for September 2026 and aspires to return humans back to moon. NASA’s Artemis program is a thorough and panoramic endeavour in lunar exploration. It is the most keenly awaited space mission for the world; consisting of four missions, the Artemis program, seeks to land humans on moon in its third mission and further its lunar space station intentions in the final, Artemis IV mission. Artemis I was launched in November 2022 and succeeded in conducting an uncrewed flight test of the Space Launch System (SLS) and the Orion spacecraft around the Moon. Scheduled for September 2025, Artemis II will be the first crewed flight test of the Space Launch System and the Orion spacecraft around the Moon. Followed by, Artemis III, to send the first humans to explore the region near the lunar South Pole. Last but definitely not the least, Artemis IV debuts humanity’s first lunar space station, a larger, more powerful version of the SLS rocket, and new mobile launcher. As one can infer from the developments since the first flight to the Artemis program, the time scale of humanity’s exploration is not linear, a bit vagarious, but certainly on the rise.
The 21st century space race, unlike its Cold War predecessor, is a multifaceted endeavour driven by a confluence of
national ambitions, scientific curiosity, and the burgeoning commercial space sector. The space race that we are now in, is characterised by the stratospheric rise of China, the scintillating example of which will be the success of Chang e’6, developed by the Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA). The decline of Russia, the successor to the USSR’s legacy of pioneering human exploration of space. Luna 25, Russia’s first space mission to the moon in 47 years, crashed on august 19 last year, and substantiates the dawdling capacity of Roscosmos in performing advanced space manoeuvres. However, it is not just the substitution of Russia by China as the principal competitor to the USA that defines the 21st century space race, rather, its the emergence of more national and even private players that is escalating the new space race. These novel national players in the space race replicate the multipolar geopolitical world order that is now steadily unfurling.
Denoted by the amplifying prominence of India in the global space sector, which became the first country in the world to successfully soft land on the South Pole of moon. The startling success of Chandrayaan 3 lunar probe was followed by the Aditya L-1 space mission, India’s first solar probe, orbiting in the halo orbit, studying the solar atmosphere and magnetic storms. Japan is another imperative player, although the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency, also known as JAXA, has recently faced a string of setbacks. Nevertheless, the country remains an unequivocal force in the global space race with its private sector also demonstrating strong promise in the sector.
Other players include the European Union and Australia that seek to augment their space capabilities and driving competencies in the sector.
USA: the Kingpin striving to secure its dominance
Much like our world order, the United States is the most successful, resourceful and forceful power in the space sector. Once trailing the Soviet Union in the space race, it not only outlasted their space program but also outmanoeuvred them. The waning of the soviet space program, and thereafter the demise of the USSR itself, bereft the US of a competitor. What ensued was a stalling of the American space program as it slumped in the priority of the government. Nevertheless, it has maintained its precedency ever-since.
If apprehensions from a solo competitor in form of the Soviet Union ignited the competitive drive in the US space
industry, the 21st century space race should be a bonanza for the US. Multifold is the essence of 21st century space race and with its abundance of players, ambitions and assertions – the US is reinvigorated to unleash the outright strength of its space program. Being chased by China, as the principal challenger, and explorer of the cosmos, the US amplifies not only competitiveness but also the scope of cooperation in the space industry.
The Artemis program, exhibits the renewed promise of American scientists, engineers and astronauts. The program aims to land the first woman and the next man on the Moon by 2025, followed by the establishment of a lunar base named Artemis Base Camp. The program emphasises sustainability, developing technologies for long-term lunar habitation. Meanwhile, The US maintains a strong focus on Mars, with rovers like Curiosity and Perseverance currently exploring the Martian surface. In 2021, the US also became the first country in the world to undertake a flight on another planet through its ingenuity helicopter that was a part of the Perseverance Mars mission.
China: the challenger to the US preponderance in the space sector
China’s space station, aptly named Tiangong (天宫), meaning “Heavenly Palace,” is the principal testament to the
nation’s growing ambitions in space exploration. Launched in modules between 2021 and 2022, Tiangong marks a
significant milestone in China’s space program, allowing for long-term human habitation in low Earth orbit. Once
operable, the Tiangong will be an alternative to the International Space Station, the epitome of space collaboration, which was collectively established by the US, Russia, Japan, Europe and Canada.
China aims to establish a permanent lunar research station, leveraging the Moon’s potential resources like helium-3, a potential fuel source for future fusion reactors. The successful Chang’e 6 mission is a remarkable feat in this direction. In fact, the Chang’e program encompasses a series of lunar orbiters, landers, and rovers. Chang’e 1, launched in 2007, became the first Chinese spacecraft to orbit the Moon. Chang’e 2, in 2010, captured the first high-resolution images of the Moon’s surface from lunar orbit. Chang’e 3, in 2013, successfully landed the first Chinese rover, Yutu, on the lunar surface. Chang’e 4, launched in 2018, achieved the historic feat of landing on the far side of the Moon, a region previously unexplored by any spacecraft. The lander and rover, Yutu-2, continue to operate, providing valuable scientific data. Chang’e 5, in 2020, successfully retrieved lunar samples and returned them to Earth, marking a significant achievement in lunar exploration. Previously, Tianwen-1, China’s first mission to Mars, successfully landed a rover on the Red Planet in 2021, searching for signs of past life.
While not the primary focus, China acknowledges the potential military applications of space technology, including
satellite communication and navigation systems crucial for modern warfare. China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite
System (BDS) is an operational global navigation satellite system (GNSS) rivaling the US-operated GPS. This
independent system provides navigation and positioning services for both civilian and military applications. China’s space program operates with a certain level of secrecy, raising concerns about its military applications and adherence to international space treaties. Space exploration serves as a powerful symbol of national advancement and technological prowess. China’s mission is to establish itself as a leading space power, challenging the US dominance. While China participates in some international space collaboration efforts, its space program is primarily state-driven, limiting collaboration with other nations.
India: the harbinger of multipolarism in the cosmos
India’s space program, spearheaded by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), has emerged as a force to be
reckoned with in the 21st century space race. Renowned for its cost-effective and innovative missions, ISRO embodies a spirit of ambition and self-reliance.
India has developed a reliable fleet of launch vehicles, including the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), known for its exceptional cost-effectiveness, and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) series for launching
heavier satellites. These capabilities have propelled India into the elite club of nations capable of launching their own satellites.
India’s space program has facilitated an overwhelming digital and technological transformation of the country,
therefore, making the country an epitome of leveraging space capabilities in domestic development endeavours. India’s prowess in developing and launching remote sensing satellites has revolutionized agriculture, natural resource management, and disaster forecasting in the country. The IRS (Indian Remote Sensing) series of satellites provides invaluable data for these crucial applications. ISRO’s INSAT (Indian National Satellite) series has played a pivotal role in transforming India’s communication infrastructure, enabling television broadcasting, telecommunications, and internet connectivity across the vast nation. Initiatives like GSAT-19 (earlier known as Rukmani) aim to bridge the digital divide in rural India by providing high-speed internet access to remote and underserved areas.
The successful launch and operation of NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), India’s indigenous regional navigation system, provides independent navigation services for the entire South Asian region. In 2014, India became the first country in the world to make it to the Mars orbit in the first attempt. Mangalyaan, India’s mars space probe, made India the first Asian nation and the fourth nation overall to achieve this feat.
In 2023, India became the first country in the world to land a lunar probe on the South Pole of moon, the mission named Chandrayaan 3. The mission’s live launch stream received 8 million concurrent views, the highest in YouTube’s history. Just weeks later, scientists launched Aditya-L1, India’s first observation mission to the Sun which is now in orbit, keeping an eye on our solar system’s most important and volatile star.
Recently, India unveiled four of its Air Force pilots who have been shortlisted to travel on the country’s maiden space flight scheduled for next year. The Gaganyaan mission aims to send three astronauts to an orbit of 400km and bring
them back after three days. Isro said a test flight would take a robot into space in 2024, before astronauts are sent into space in 2025. Vyommitra – Sanskrit word for “space friend” – the female humanoid will be sent into space later this year. If it succeeds, India will become only the fourth country to send a human into space after the Soviet Union, the US and China.
India has also announced ambitious new plans for space, saying it would aim to set up a space station by 2035 and send an astronaut to the Moon by 2040. A traditional adversary of China, India actively engages with NASA, JAXA and
ISRO’s European counterparts.
Japan, Europe and other galvanising stakeholders in the new space race
While the US, China and an emerging India remain the front runners in the global space race, other players play a
pivotal role by ensuing cooperation and competitiveness in the industry.
Japan’s space program traces its roots back to the 1950s, fueled by the vision of scientists like Professor Hideo Itokawa. Best known for its Hayabusa missions, which were a revolutionary feat, with Hayabusa 1 successfully landing on the asteroid Itokawa and returning samples to Earth, providing invaluable insights into the origins of our solar system. Hayabusa 2, built upon its predecessor’s success, collecting samples from the asteroid Ryugu and returning them to Earth in 2020, offering further scientific data for analysis.
The Akatsuki mission (launched in 2010) successfully entered Venus’ orbit after a challenging initial phase, becoming the first Japanese spacecraft to orbit another planet. Japan’s Kibo module, launched in 2008, serves as a vital component of the International Space Station (ISS). This multi-purpose laboratory supports various scientific experiments in microgravity, contributing significantly to international space research endeavors. The Kibo module is a prime example of Japan’s vitality as a space partner. Furthermore, the BepiColombo mission, a joint mission with the European Space Agency (ESA), launched in 2018, aims to reach Mercury, the smallest and least-explored planet in our solar system. BepiColombo is scheduled to arrive at Mercury in 2025 and unravel the mysteries of this enigmatic planet.
The European Space Agency or the ESA, comprises of 22 member states, including France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, and others, representing a united European front in space exploration. ESA has in the past established strong partnerships with other spacefaring nations, including the United States on the International Space Station (ISS) and Russia on missions like ExoMars.
The Ariane series of launch vehicles, particularly the highly reliable Ariane 5, has established ESA as a major player in the commercial launch market. For the history, the ESA boasts, the first spacecraft to fly close to a comet, Giotto, captured close-up images of Comet Halley, providing valuable insights into the composition and structure of comets. In 2005, ESA’s Huygens probe landed on the surface of Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, the only known moon in our solar system with a dense atmosphere and liquid lakes on its surface. Huygens provided a wealth of data about Titan’s environment and potential for harboring extraterrestrial life.
Similar to their Japanese partner, the ESA is a major driver of cooperation in the space industry. A collaborative effort between ESA, NASA, and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA), the James Webb Space Telescope, launched in 2021, is
the most powerful space telescope ever built, and perhaps the most powerful recent example of ESA’s international
partnerships in space.
It is noteworthy that the 21st century space race is still nascent and not restrained to the aforementioned nations. There are over 77 space agencies in the world, and at least a fraction of them rely on space cooperation to embark on their exploration of the cosmos.